Animal Farm Essay Example for Free

Animal Farm EssayIn the movie, I began to see examples of communism and individuation. For instance, in collectivism the group comes before the individual. The experts do all the thinking for the people. Which in this case, the pigs, Napoleon and snowball were the experts. They made the rules that the farm animals had to abide all animals were equal, no animal shall be killed by another, no sleeping on beds or drinking alcohol ect. As the revolution went on, the animals helped one another,like we as people do in the everyday world. Napoleon soon felt as if snowball was getting in the way of his dictatorship and had him killed. Napoleon now became the leader, and even stagger the word to other farms so other pigs could start the same revolution. The weaker animals were sacrificed the laws that were set soon changed, the farm animals became more and more like slaves , they ate less, give outed dawn to declivity and no longer were equal. The law now was some animals were equal but some more than others.While the farm animals did all the hard work, the pigs got to sit back, slow up and eat all the food for themselves. With that said, Collectivism is a lot like communism, the pigs had control of the farm animals, made the laws, even everything the farm animals made soon belonged to the pigs. Its like how the world is today, part of the hard earned money and things we make go to the government. The government and the corporations are the pigs. On the individualistic side of things, in individualism the individual comes before the group.They only worry about their family and close friends. Towards the end of the movie, the horse was sold off and later killed, beca example he was no more use for the pigs. The donkey who is a close friend to the horse took that as a final straw and recognized what the pigs were really doing. Compared to individualism they fought with what they believed in. That no individual should work for pigs like them. Thats how it is with humans we fight with what me believe in.

Management Under Uncertainly Essay Example for Free

Management Under Uncertainly EssayI had been in tush as a temporary worker and one end made by the motorbus left a deep impression on me. As one of the largest sell strains in Australia, Target can be found in the shopping centre of nigh area. The store I had worked is located in Leichhardt which had the expectancy was achieving a sales budget of $ 50,000 per day, and then the net profit would reach $6000. In order to fake the expectation into reality, the manager of Target Leichhardt store from the point of shot of cost savings decided to cut the shifts of employees. Originally, one shift had four cashiers, but now reduced to two cashiers.In addition, the manger made a close to no longer use node greeters. In Target store, the duty of greeter is not only greet customers into the store, but in any case stipulate the bags of customers to avoid theft when they leave. The manager decided to reduce shift because he found this is a kind of waste when the store is not bus y. On the separate hand, he popular opinion the customer greeter looks deal a decoration because the phenomenon of pilferage was rarely. Although the manager made the adjustments, the result was still not satisfied and the turn upcome was the store has not achieved the budget.These ratiocinations caused complaint from a lot of customers about the long queue when they went to the founderout. I had seen some customers drop off the commodities which they had selected because they do not like to count for a long time. Beyond that, the two operators always feel tired and unfair when the store is very busy. Once they feel bored, they will not ready enough energy and passion to serve customers. Furtherto a greater extent, no longer use greeter also caused some negative effects. For example, tally clerk found that teentsy and precious items had been lost regularly.Obviously, there were customers in the store for stealing and the action of theft reduced the budget seriously. Analysi s of the Decision Teale, Dispenza, Flynn, Currie (2003) pointed out that the bounded coherent decision making is refer to there are many options, but the decision maker only consider some of these, or from the long term, that is not a best decision but the most suitable for the current situation. Here is an example, a lady fell down along the road and conk out her stiletto heel, and then she quickly goes into a cheap shoe store and bought a pair of lip-flops that she had never worn before.If it is in normal circumstances, the lady will deprave a pair of shoes that she likes at ordinary times, but now she is in a hurry and can not wear the shoes with tough heels. So, buy a pair of shoes that does not like usually become an appropriate choice. This can be called satisfying. People in most cases do decision like this, because sometimes we do not consider all the possibilities in order to save time (Campling, Poole, Wiesner, Ang, Chan, Tan Schermerhorn, 2008). Decision-makers alw ays cream up the most useful one.In the Target Leichhardt store, because the manager chose the solution to reduce the costs in a short time, the decision can be defined as Satisfying. The decision of this store manager made just embodies the messs bounded rationality in decision making process. The managers thought the store can increase budget by cutting costs. However, queuing for a long time can make customers eat up bad impression on the store. Finally, people thought for long lines when they mention this store, then they refuse to go to the store shopping instinctively.People should consider three processes that bounded rationality usually involve in. hey are simple search, simple stopping and simple decision rules. These three rules are also referred to as heuristics, it is used to describe how normal people make decisions without calculating utilities and probabilities (Gigerenzer Todd, 2012). In this case, the manager made decision without calculating the chance of vario us results by using the optimal and maximizing outcome. . In this situation, the manager didnt use the optimal or maximizing outcome to calculate the probability of outcome occurring, he didnt use the utility to calculate the expect happiness.There are many factors that can cause bounded rationality, such as emotion, knowledge and culture. According to Teale et al (2003), bounded rationality can also be interpreted as non-rational decisions. This is because people have limited knowledge level and lack of training. The lack of knowledge and training make people with foreshorten horizons, and then can not take a panoramic view of the situation and do not have a long-term view. In this Target store, the manager did not investigate and understand the situation of the store from all aspects carefully it also can say he was lack of practical start in management of decision making.His decision can only satisfy the short-term interest if it goes well. However, it turns out he did not achi eve the short-term marks. In terms of the long time interest, invoice for a long time and occasionally steal phenomenon caused bad effect on the companys image. On the other hand, decision-maker do not communicate smoothly and actively with others can also affect the decision making (McKee, 2010). According to my observation, the manager lack base understanding of the store and he seldom communicated with employees and customers.Sometimes, he just organized the regular undertakeing, and the aim of meeting is to decorate task without exchange views with others. When someone makes decision by himself without communicate with others, bounded rationality can get a higher frequency of occurrence. Lacks of communication not only lead to make decision unwise, because the decision maker is likely to be emotional to make a decision, but also make the decision maker overconfidence. In real life, we meet some people who always think they are right (Hanson, Hitt, Ireland Hoskisson, 2011).Be yond that, surround can cause bounded rationality. Todays general environment is complicated and changefully, people can obtain information from various channels and ways. Not all information is appropriate, sometimes wrong information mislead decision maker to make an irrational decision. In this case, the general environment is the customers and sales performance are different and the manager eager to prove his ability. So he made a non rational decision and this decision does not have any benefit for a long term operation.Reflection Mckee (2010) show us The Eight detail Decision Making Process Model. If I were the manager in this case, I would use the above mentioned model to help me to make a rational decision. First of all, I would collect all possible information about the sale budget and net profit for five years before. For example, check the financial annual report, the daily turnover and the net profit report. Form these reports, I could analyze and assess which part of w ork we need to adjust and improve.Our goal is to increase earnings we can start this goal from attracting more customers rather than reduce shifts and layoff greeters. There are many ways to attract potential customers and make them become returned customers at the same time. One effective way is issue voucher we can offer a five dollar voucher when the customers corrupt more than 50 dollars. By that analogy, we can give ten dollar voucher when the customers purchase more than 100 dollars. In this way, we can ensure customers limit coming. Another way to attract customers is to do some promotions, such as buy three same items for two items price.When I use The Eight Stage Decision Making Process Model to make a decision, I would consider more on one of the elements that is to list alternatives (Mckee, 2010). In this case, arrange employees to the most suitable area according to their own ability and personality is an alternative decision. For instance, a employee with personality of patience and enthusiasm, I would arrange he to be a customer assistance. Put myself in customers position, I hope to get a better shopping guide and help. Moreover, Tolbert and Hall (2008) pointed out that the more person involve the decision process, the decision is more rational.Due to the feasibility of this theory, I would be honest to analyze the whole store operating condition and the goals to other managers and employees. Then, I will encourage them to actively participate in discussion and give advices. If I were the manager I would continue to use customer greeters. In order to make them not as decoration, I will arrange them some to do things to attract customers. For example, greeters can pass flyers to passers so that they have a better concept about what product will have a discount in which day.The following step we need to carry out decision, along with this step there may have some obstacles impede our progress. But, these are not serious problems, as long as we s tep by step we are able to make sensible decisions (Kramar, Bartram, De Cieri, Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart Wright, 2011). This style of decision making can be described as the rational model. Only managers like a link, fasten all the employees together to make the decision, this decision can be good for long-term development of an organization.

Special Education Reflection Essay Example for Free

Special cultivation Reflection EssaySpecial Education 332 (Education and Inclusion of Individuals with Special Needs) has been enlightening for me as a secondary mathematics educator. In the beginning of the semester, my feelings towards special knowledge were those of apathy and insensitivity. I now study that my feelings were due to my lack of knowledge and my judgment based on stereotypes. I always knew that making fun of students with mark offing disabilities was wrong. However, I never felt that cellular inclusion of special education students in general education classes was plausible or made sense. I felt that special education students belonged in their own classrooms and that is wherefore we have special education educators. As a prospective secondary mathematics educator, I felt that it was unfair that I would have special education students in my classes. I would rationalize my attitude by saying that I signed up to t each(prenominal) radiation diagram students, and that the special education students were not my task or responsibility. I did not want to deal with them. I did not see them as individuals who seek meaning through learning.As a constructivist, my terminal as an educator is to provide students with meaning by imparting knowledge. As I reflect on my feelings towards special education students, I ask myself why do I not see them in the same way. If they argon students as well, why do I discriminate against them? Why is it, when I imply about indoctrinateing students with learning disabilities, I get uncomfortable? It is due to my lack of knowledge of students with learning disabilities. It was not until I saw the movie (before our class) I Am Sam, my thoughts about people with learning disabilities started to change.The movie changed my perception that mentally challenged individuals are strange by nature because they do not seem to insure when people talk to them and is different from myself. The movie showed me that they d o comprehend information, have feelings as I do, and most importantly, that I have wrongly stereotyped their differences. This rails not scarce gave me the knowledge I needed to understand students with learning disabilities, I was also able to empathize with these students through active participation in the sensitivity activities.Participating in the activities during our class was eye opening I was able to have a taste of what it was like for people with learning disabilities. I always believed that there was something wrong with people with learning disabilities, and thus classified them as abnormal. The activities made me come across that with their learning disability aside, they were no different from me. bulk with learning disabilities had their strengths and weaknesses, and I had mine. The activities, without fail, made me frustrated.I wanted to lash out at the world, and I always wondered why students with learning disabilities had emotional problems. I came to realize that people with learning disabilities live with their disabilities for the rest of their lives. That these sensitivity activities were only temporary for us, but it was reality for those dealing with the disabilities. This is what changed me the most, realizing this simple truth. Throughout my years at Lehigh, I have proclaimed that I have a passion to teach, to show students that mathematics is not difficult, and that they are able to understand mathematics.However, when it came to special education students, my philosophical system changed, due to their learning disability. I was swinish to the special education movement of inclusion, because I feared the idea of teaching students who were not normal. I use the word normal in quotations because I now realize that special education students are like anybody else, and that we, special and general education students alike, are all normal. There is nought wrong with special education students. Special education students are indiv iduals who desire to learn.My feelings towards special education students have also changed through my counseling psychology class. In the class I learned that every student, whether they are homosexuals, rape victims, Jewish, Christian, or special education students, are students. Every student should not be discriminated because of who they are rather they should be treated as children who need to learn. I was annoyed to find out that students, who had special needs, were included in classes where teachers were not trained or educated and therefore did not know how to instruct these students.I strongly believe that the special education movement of inclusion give succeed only if general education educators become aware of what it means to have learning disabilities and understand the concept of habitual design. One of the greatest tools that this class has given me is universal design. Universal design for learning is a process for considering the needs of all students in the cl assroom and designing curriculum, instruction, and evaluation with sufficient flexibility so that each student benefits (Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, and Smith, 2004).I will not be able to teach my general education class with special education students in it, by victimization universal design to teach everyone. I believe that this tool is the most powerful one that will advance the inclusion of special education students in general education classrooms movement. Fortunately, I was placed in a classroom (for my pre-intern teaching experience) where there was a student who had learning disabilities, and was included in a general education classroom. I was able to experience having a special education student in a general education classroom.Through this experience, I was able to get to know the student, and saw that he was an awesome kid. I liked him so much because despite his IEPs, he impressed me with his determination to learn and get good grades. He was a special education student who sought meaning through learning. My transformation became most apparent to me in typography my advocacy letter. I wanted to condemn the publisher of the Website and give him a piece of my mind. How dare he condone such blasphemy? Does he not see the damaging affects that his Website has on the special education community?What I did not see was that I was just like him once. I was also ignorant and apathetic towards students with learning disabilities. Even though, I understand special education students better than I had in the past and empathize with them, I must be careful on how I educate others. How can expect others to listen to me and change their views if I do it in a way that makes them defensive straight off? I have to be sympathetic towards those once in my position, and must communicate myself to produce a change in their view of students with learning disabilities.Furthermore, I must not become disillusioned into thinking that I have learned everything about stude nts with learning disabilities and that I have done a apprehend one-eighty in my view of these students. There was several times where I caught myself using the term retarded, in describing something that was unintelligent. I must understand that my advocacy towards this issue will only grow if I continue to find out more about learning disabilities, to watch what I say, and to be careful when trying to teach others to change their views. Overall, I must admit that I have been blessed from taking this racecourse.I feel that I have grown throughout the course of the class, where I once stereotyped students with learning disabilities to understanding students with disabilities. Many people judge and classify what they do not understand, and through that ignorance is birthed. I am grateful that I have taken this class as I have become aware of my ignorance and have a deeper understanding and acceptance of those with learning disabilities, indoors and outside of the classroom. Refere nces Turnbull, R. , Turnbull, A. , Shank, M. , Smith, S. J. (2004). Exceptional Lives Special Education in Todays Schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson Education.

Social Gradient In Health Health And Social Care Essay

Social Gradient In Health Health And Social heraldic bearing EssayThe current world is explicitly divided into developed world characterized by having ultra-modern technological advance custodyt, close to efficient communication system, better wellness manage and income opportunities and under developed region with completely opposite scenarios. This huge inequality among the countries depicted in huge differences in health and wellbeing of the populations.. According to the field Health Organization (WHO), there is a 36 old age renewing in the midst of the life foretaste among the countries. The life expectancy of Malawi is only 47 long time while in case of Japan it is 83 years. WHO has declargond that there is no biological or genetic reason for the alarming differences in health and life opportunity. The unequal scenario of health positioning, however, not only persists between countries, further too evident in spite of appearance countries, and surprisingly almos t all countries irrespective of generative or poor. on that point is a distinct differentiation in the health status among tidy sum of different socio-economic status (SES). Generally, muckle with higher SES tend to generate better health than that of lower SES (Whitehall Study). That is health status is directly think to cordial status. This fact is referred to as the mixer slope in health ( Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003). Since health inequalities are evident despite signifi quite a littlet improvement in everyplaceall health of the populace, it has become the pivotal agenda in the health policy supplying and management.Social Gradient in HealthThe social gradient in heath refers to the fact that inequalities in population health status are associate to inequalities in social status (Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003).The poorest of the poor, around the world, get down the worst health. Within countries, the evidence shows that in general the lower an individuals socioecon omic position the worse their health. There is a social gradient in health that runs from top to bottom of the socioeconomic spectrum. This is a global phenomenon, seen in low, middle and high income countries. The social gradient in health means that health inequities affect e rattling iodin.Health inequities, in particular, are avoid up to(p) inequalities in health between groups of people within countries and between countries. These inequities arise from inequalities within and between societies (WHO). Below are some examples of health inequities between and within countries extracted from WHOthe infant mortality rate (the adventure of a tike dying between birth and one year of age) is 2 per gigabyte live births in Iceland and over 120 per 1000 live births in Mozambiquethe life history risk of maternal death during or shortly after pregnancy is only 1 in 17 400 in Sweden but it is 1 in 8 in Afghanistan.Examples of health inequities within countriesin Bolivia, babies born to women with no education have infant mortality greater than 100 per 1000 live births, while the infant mortality rate of babies born to mothers with at least secondary education is under 40 per 1000life expectancy at birth among indigenous Australians is substantially lower (59.4 for males and 64.8 for females) than that of non-indigenous Australians (76.6 and 82.0, respectively)life expectancy at birth for men in the Calton neighbourhood of Glasgow is 54 years, 28 years less than that of men in Lenzie, a few kilometres awaythe prevalence of long disabilities among European men aged 80+ years is 58.8% among the lower ameliorate versus 40.2% among the higher educated.Measurement of Social GradientSES is generally categorized based on income, academic qualification, social position, occupation, etc. Each of these components is very associated with themselves. For example, better education tends to lead better job which again associated with better income. In UK, twain programifica tions exist. The Registrar-Generals Social Classes were introduced in 1913 and were renamed in 1990 as Social Class based on Occupation. The kindes are Professional occupations (Class I), Managerial and technical occupations (Class II), Skilled non-manual occupations (Class IIIN), Skilled manual occupations (Class IIIM), Partly-skilled occupations (Class IV), and Unskilled occupations (Class V).Office for National Statistics on the other hand classified social classes into eight categories. Table 1 depicts this classification.Table 1 Social classification of the Office for National StatisticsClassDescription1Higher managerial, administrative and maestro occupations1.1Large employers and higher managerial and administrative occupations1.2Higher professional occupations2Lower managerial, administrative and professional occupations3Intermediate occupations4Small employers and cause account workers5Lower supervisory and technical occupations6Semi-routine occupations7Routine occupatio ns8Never worked and long-term unemployedBased on the ii above social classification outcome variables (i.e., mortality and life expectancy) are analyzed. Results showed that those who belong to the upper social class tend to have better health in terms of less mortality rate and higher life expectancy than that of the lower class inhabitants. That is health status follows a social gradient. veritable Scenario UKThe figure 1 below depicts differences in male life expectancy within a small area in London. Travelling from Westminster, every two tube stops represent one year of life expectancy lost.CUsersazharDocumentsAcademicTheories Perspective of HPliteraturevital referencesD-Tube Map on LE 2004-08.jpgAlthough life expectancy has change magnitude in all London boroughs since 2000, there has been a widening in the gap between the boroughs with the highest and the lowest life expectancy. In 1999-2001, this gap was 5.4 years for men and 4.2 years for women. In 2006-2008, the gap had increased to 9.2 years for men and 8.5 years for women (ONS entropy sources).Regarding different social class mortality rate excessively varies significantly. From the data of the figure 2, we can see that mortality rate per 100,000 people increased to almost double from class I to class VII.This is a graph present age-standardised mortality rate by NS-SEC men aged 25-64, England and Wales 2001-03Figure 2 Age-standardised mortality rate by NS-SEC men aged 25-64, England and Wales 2001-03Explanations for InequalitiesIn order to explain why these inequalities exist, a number of explanations have been offered. These are briefly explained belowArtefactThe relationship between social class and health is probably an artefact of measuring stick systems used to determine social class as well as health status. Mortality ratios calculated on basis of number of deaths per social class divided by number from each class determined by census returns may be inaccurate reporting of social clas s.However, this explanation can be questioned in way that inequalities have been demonstrated using a number of different systems of measurement of social class. For example, occupation, property ownership, educational status and opening to social resources. Nonetheless, still there is room for improvement in the measurement system by which classification and health status are determined.Downward header (Darwinian selection)Based on the Darwins assumption, this explanation suggests that the illness go out slide down the social class while the healthier people will have a greater chance of social advancement.However, the fact that many health problems only seen in adulthood, often once career choices have been made and social class has been determined. Now, if illness causes downward shift then the explanation of healthy rise class is less apparent be true.Cultural explanationsHealth damaging behaviours are differentially distributed across social classes and contribute to observ ed gradients. This suggests that the lower social classes prefer less healthy lifestyles, eat more(prenominal) fatty foods, smoke more and exercise less than the middle and upper classes.Using the Canadian National Population Health (NPH) Survey (1994-1995) data of 7720 men and 9269 women 15 to over 80 years of age, (Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003) found higher household income, being retired, and aging are associated with better physical health and lower genial distress when accounting for their mathematical function in lowering stressor trains and bolstering control, self-esteem, social support, and social involvement. This evidence can partly be of supportive with the cultural explanations. However, more investigation is needed why this variation in behaviour of different social class.The material explanationPhysical and psychosocial features associated with the class structure influence health and contribute to observed gradients. This indicates that poverty, poor hold condi tions, lack of resources in health and educational provision as well as higher risk occupations for the poor determines the gradient in health. No dubiousness poverty impacts negatively in the health outcomes. However, only improving materialistic access might not lead better health and less social gradient.Consider the example of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Having around double income per person than that of Bangladesh in last decade, India and Pakistan left behind in almost all the health indicators (see Figure 3). look expectancy at birth increase for Bangladesh is 17% while the figures for India and Pakistan are 12% and 6.56% respectively. In case of infant (ageFigure 3 Health and income status of Bangladesh, India Pakistan from 1990 to 2011 (extracted from The Economist, 3rd November 2012)Social class is a complex construct that may involve status, wealth, culture, background and employment. It would therefore be naive to look for a uncomplicated causal relationship bet ween class and ill health. Each individual will experience a number of different influences on their health, some of which also come under the umbrella of social class.Actions to combat social gradient in healthMarmots review (2010) noted The implications of the social gradient in health are profound. It is tempting to focus limited resources on those in most need. Although social gradients in health affecting almost everyone, interferences however are very crucial for people in need most. But so far the policy, programmes and interventions aiming to reduce social gradient in health mounted a dole out and itself create problems for the root level personnel. A report from the Audit Commission says there has been too much policy and accompanying guidance issued by of import government for people working in the field to keep up with. It is also critical that trusts and local authorities have often faced strange demands from central government and calls for a more consistent and las ting set of policy statements to aid implementation on the ground.We are un presumable to be able to eliminate the social gradient in health completely, but it is possible to have a shallower social gradient in health and wellbeing than is currently the case for England. This is evidenced by the fact that there is a steeper socioeconomic gradient in health in some regions than in others, as shown in Figure 2.To reduce the steepness of the social gradient in health, actions must be universal, but with a scale and intensity that is proportionate to the level of disadvantage. We call this proportionate universalism. Greater intensity of action is likely to be needed for those with greater social and economic disadvantage, but focusing solely on the most disadvantaged will not reduce the health gradient, and will only tackle a small part of the problem.Potential area of intervention Unhealthy behaviourPotential target group group at in riskConclusionUnhealthy behaviourSmokingPoor nutr imentLess physical activityAlcoholismDeterminants of healthIn todays debates, the determinants of health include all the major non-genetic and non-biological influences on health. The term therefore covers individual risk factors, such as smoking, and what are often called wider determinants (Hilary Graham* and Michael P Kelly, Health inequalities concepts, frameworks and policy)Smoking is responsible for one in half a dozen deaths in the UK. It is overall the one area where behavioural change would make the greatest impact on health inequalities. A clear divide remains in smoking levels between manual and non-manual groups, and there are also significant differences between different ethnicities and genders. Over 40% of Bangladeshi men smoke, compared to around 5% of Bangladeshi women, and more than one in four women of Irish descent are smokers.Smoking is the largest recognised cause of premature death and disability, and is responsible for about one in six deaths (over 100,000 i n total) every year in the UK. Smoking prevalence has fallen dramatically in the most affluent sectors of society over the prehistorical 30 years, but much less so among the most disadvantaged. Women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to have babies born prematurely, twice as likely to have low birth weight babies and up to three times more likely to die from sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI). Low birth weight babies experience increased risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.Long-term smokers bear the heaviest burden of death and disease think to their smoking and is disproportionately drawn from lower socio-economic groups. Smokers in poorer social groups tend to have started smoking at an earlier age 31% of smokers in managerial and professional households started before they were 16, compared with 45% of those in routine and manual households.Obesity and its risks are not experienced equally across society, in some cases this is related to particular behav iours. There is evidence that people whose ethnic background is Pakistani or Bangladeshi are much less likely to engage in high levels of physical exercise.There are marked differences in satisfaction with primary care services. People from black and minority ethnic groups report significantly worse access than white British people. Performance on access is worst for people from Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds their satisfaction with their level of access is 10-20 voice points below that reported by people from white British backgrounds.It is clear that more needs to be done to address the needs of people with disabilities. Compared with people without disabilities, they are more likely to live in poverty, less likely to have educational qualifications, more likely to be economically inactive, more likely to experience problems with hate crime or harassment, and more likely to experience problems with housing and transport. These correlations appear to work in both directions people are also more likely to become disabled if they have a low income, are out of work or have low educational qualifications. accident is the single largest cause of disability in England.1 Approximately half of those who survive a stroke will be left with long-term disability problems six months afterwards and will be dependent on others.People with disabilities often experience multiple forms of labour market disadvantage more than 40% of people with disabilities are low-skilled around 25% of those of working age are over 50 and around 10% are from black and minority ethnic groups. unmatched study2 has estimated that people with learning disabilities or long-term mental health problems are 58% more likely to die before age 50 than non-disabled people. And studies of psychiatric patients in infirmarys show that up to 70% smoke.Access to care services has been reported as an issue. Around a quarter (24%) of deaf or hard-of-hearing people miss care appointments, and 19% miss mo re than five appointments, because of poor communication. Two-fifths (40%) of visually impaired people believe that their GPs are not amply aware of their needs, rising to 60% for other surgery staff. Disabled people are also four times more likely than the general population to find their dentists surgery inaccessible.Stigma and shame are barriers to the engagement and employment of people with mental illness. Negative media images add to this discrimination. Only 21% of people with long-term mental illness are employed, the lowest proportion of any disabled group.People with severe mental illness are 1.5 times more likely to die prematurely than others, often from preventable causes, and they are also less likely to access routine health checks.There are also differences in alcohol related deaths. There are now around 23,260 deaths related to alcohol every year in England. Every man dying of alcohol-related causes loses on average 21 years of life, and every woman loses 15 years. The prevalence of disability increases rapidly with age. Approximately 75% of men and women aged 85 and over are disabled.Alcohol is a particular problem in the mid years. Around 26% of adults in England are drinking at hazardous, harmful or dependent levels. The largest increase in the number of NHS alcohol-related hospital admissions is in the 35-49 age group. These include admissions where alcoholic liver disease, the toxic effect of alcohol or mental and behavioural disorder due to alcohol are identified as the primary or secondary diagnosis.The social pattern of problem drinking is complex, but more disadvantaged communities have higher levels of mortality, hospital admission, crime, absence from work, school exclusions, teenage pregnancy and road traffic accidents due to alcohol consumption. Within localities, the most disadvantaged individuals typically unemployed, low-income older smokers have 4 to 15 times greater alcohol-specific mortality and 4 to 10 times greater alcoh ol-specific admission to hospital than the most affluent.Alcohol has a serious effect on behaviour and relationships in the home, affecting the mental health and behaviour of children of alcohol-misusing parents.15 Furthermore, harmful drinking is link up to psychiatric morbidity including depression, and around a third of incidents of domestic violence are linked to alcohol misuse. Around one million children live in families where at least one parent misuses alcohol, and by the age of 15 young people in families with a parent who drinks at harmful levels have rates of psychiatric disorder that are between 2.2 and 3.9 times higher than those of other young people.16Since the mid-1990s, newly diagnosed cases of HIV have been increasing. Increased testing will have contributed in part to this, and also enables earlier intervention. Men who have stimulate with men continue to be disproportionately affected. By 2006, men having fire with men accounted for up to three-quarters of UK- acquired HIV infections, and they remain the behavioural group at greatest risk of acquiring HIV in the UK. An estimated 31% of men having sex with men aged 15-59 were unaware of their infection in 2006. Among HIV-infected men having sex with men, diagnosed late are 14 times more likely to die within one year of diagnosis than those diagnosedearlier.17

Specific Job Description And General Job Description Commerce Essay

Specific crinkle Description And General Job Description Commerce EssayGeneral theorize stilbestrol is beat suitable if the single task has to be carried on by the group of commonwealth or if the like duties and functions are to be performed by multiple nation whitethorn be at same department, place or at different places the best example may be the call canter executives or the customer support executives where as it may non the case in furrow des of particular proposition natureGeneral Job des may be for the lower level positions where the requirement is for huge amount of personnels or it may even be good for operational level. Whereas specific argument des is for tactical and strategic levelsGeneral Job description may explain vision, mission, policies etc where as the later is position specific in an arrangingTheir may be group of people with same designation, salary , spots and responsibility in general job des but the case may non be the same in specific job des sp ecific job des may be required when the organisation wants to recruit the specialised person with specific skill sets2. Suppose several people are employed in the same job as the one(a) for which you are writing a job description. Would it be infallible to write a different job description for each person who works in the same job?In an organisation to develop the job description, it is necessary to study the competencies, abilities and skills that are required because when developing job description manager is supposed to make an analysis of job not the job holder of the position not the person, because all the people are supposed to carry on same function, has to achieve similar objective, it result likewise support you inevaluation the performance or performance appraisal,The training and development cost may be reducedThe promotion structure and observe will be facilitatedIt will be payoffous in compensation heed, declaring financial and non financial incentivesThe poor a nd the best performers may be well determine3. Carefully follow a format for the specific Job Description when writing the job description for the job you selected. Make sure that you include in you job description the following elementsjob description is an activity which will be based on the job analysis and it will be a document where filtering process will be undertaken as at first when I wanted to prepare the job description and wanted to list surmount the number of activities that are performed it has gone unto 43 then I take started clustering it under different headings therefore I postulate first started from big then gone for micro, as already been mentioned in my previous exbroadcastation also that we have to develop job or position not job holder or person as the organisation will be stable and positions will be stable but it may be replaced with many an(prenominal) eligible people so we designate power, authority accountability, and responsibility to positions and most eventfully first the position is created then we will match with the person which is eventful function in job descriptionThe job description is developed to know why the job is to be performed, what are the task that are to be accomplished, and how it has to be performedTHE DESCRIPTION FORMAT FOR HR EXECUTIVEDepartment valet Resource DepartmentDesignation Or Title Of The Job Human Resources administrator or HR assistantJob Summary - the job includes carrying on the enlisting and woof for the organisation for which identify the potentiality sources from which the talents or potentialcandidates may be sourced, arranging the enlistingand selections. Coordinating with various departmentsand .forecasting the manpower requirement andcoordinate and purpose internal and external enlisting,maintaining of database of human resourcesJob duties and responsibilities -The job responsibilities may include job analysisManpower planning by collecting the data from all the departments of organisationCoordinating with all the heads of departments and collecting necessary details of requirements and eligibilitiesManpower forecasting and planningRecruitment of candidates by internal and external sourcesCoordinating with all placement agencies and placement consultantsConducting interviews, review of application forms by various screening techniquesDevelopment and maintaining recruitment policyWork with accounts admin department for developing payrollDesigning and conducting the induction and skill enhancement training designReviewing and evaluation of employee performance and constant performance appraisal activities has to be carried on.All the separate human resource activities also has to be looked afterd) Job requirements - expectation has to be well versed with reading, writing and speaking EnglishPerson has to have in-depth knowledge of human resource managementShould possess negotiation, counselling and motivational skillsHe has to have knowledge about Int ernational labour organisation rules and regulationsThorough knowledge in computers, web browsing and other packages of payroll managemente) Minimum qualificationThe person has to have bachelors or masters degree in personal management, human resource management or any other HR degree from reputed universityDiploma in computersTask 2Clone or Complement? What to look for in a teamIn many organizations that have go to a team structure, the team is the principal unit where work gets done. However, most organizations recruit and hire as though there was one job description and the team did not exist. The reality is that people have natural strengths or tendencies and therefore end up playing different roles on a team. For example, some people are naturally empathetic and focused on interpersonal issues. Others are focused on and most comfortable with good aspects. Others like the excitement of identifying new concepts and solutions but arent cut out for dealing with the operational de tails postulate to carry them through. Recent research has found that allowing people to play to their strengths can yield maximum performance and employee satisfaction.Critical thinking questionsIF THERE ARE DISTINCT ROLES TO BE PLAYED ON A TEAM, HOW WOULD YOU GO ABOUT RECRUITING AND HIRING FOR THEM?The business world had made tremendous growth and development not only operationally but also strategically, due to the liberalisation ,globalisation and privatisation the full-page world had became a global village ,therefore the need of an hour is the dynamism in operation and matching the trends with constant change for which their has to be the dynamism in the human resources as the organisation does not have any existence if there are no people which has been explained in the definition of organisation raise the recruitment may be by many ways which are as followsThe internal recruitment process may be followed where the employees has to be actuate for facilitating in organisat ion recruitment process, the company may also declare some financial and non financial incentives to present personals (reference order) by this the company may have various advantages likeCompany may get the trust worthy people as they are been referredThe new recruited will be knowing the policies and operations of organisation as referee might have updated himThe cohesiveness among the team mates will be high as the are been referred by them only, the study process will be comparatively fasterThe company may even have cost effectiveness as this process comparatively will cost less in monetary as well as risk termsThe company may also hire the people from the line of merchandise member as they may be with good knowledge about organisation modus of operationThe present employees working in an organisation on shrivel up or temporary basis also may be hiredThe organisaton may go for campus recruitment where they may hire fresh talent as trainees where they have to be exposed to t he concern teams, the students may also provided the internship or projects where based on their efforts ,ability and interest they may also be recruitedThe characteristics needed by individual team members depend on the team and the strengths and weakness of others who are on the team. In other words, the situation is much more dynamic than assumptive that there is one static job with a single set of qualifications. How could you model or include this dynamic and interactive nature in the recruitment and hiring process?The company may follow as mentioned above and the referral strategy may be also be followedThe company may focus on high level and professional induction training with both in house and on the job training methodsOne of the most advanced method may be Japanese method of life time employment where the candidates has to be hired from their schooling only, there fore the cohesiveness among members will be more ,they will be clear about career path etcThe company may al so hire some reputed placement consultants and take the attend to from employee clubsThe organisation may also go for set up of its own college or make mou with some reputed university to impart the specialised knowledge of company its policies and result as done b mc Donalds and iciciTeam exerciseAs a team, identify the roles that you think are important for teams in the workplace.Identify the skills needed to perform each role.It has been utter in the book essentials of management that their are three major skills required in an organisation that has been explains as fallowsConceptual skills Human Skills Technical SkillsTOP LEVELMIDDLE LEVELLOWER LEVELThe fist category of skills is the conceptual skills the conceptual skill has to be in maximum quantum by top level and as we go down the level i.e at lower level it decreasesThe second category of skills is the human skills which are to be in equal quantum by all the levelsThird skills are the technological skills which will be at high quantum at lower level and decreases when moved till top levelOther skills required are as fallowsprofitable judgmentknowledge about product both technical and non technicaleffective time managing skillsplanning and organizing skillscommunication skillscomputer and it skillsproblem-solving and decision-makingteam-working and developing/helping othersenergy, determination and work-ratesteadiness under wardrobeureleadership and integrityinnovativeness ,adaptableness, flexibility, and mobilitypersonal fashion and imageappreciation and application of social responsibility, sustainability, and ethical considerationsIn addition to skills, a natural tendency or motivation to perform in a particular fiber of role can be critical. How could you measure the motivation needed for each role?How could you measure the skills needed for each role? demand is an ongoing process where the motivational needs of the employees change from time to time more so over it has been identified by g reat researchers like Maslow and Hertzberg who stated different motivational factors for a human being .as stated by Maslow who jibe the needs hierarchy the form of basic needs, security needs, social and contend needs, esteem needs and self actualisation need where he explained there are different set of factors at each hierarchy. Which can be correlated as major motivational factors for which a manager has to do followingTo know the motivational factors of employees first the manager has to be motivatedHe has to be epitheticStudy in detail the organisational goals so as to correlate with goals of employeesThen understand what factors motivate them by judgment and experience as well as collecting information from employee itselfRecognize that supporting employee motivation is a process, not a taskSupport employee motivation by using organizational systems (for example, policies and procedures) dont undecomposed count on good intentionsThe factors once identified by analysis and s reviewing job and job description they may be put on a structured or semi structured questionnaire, generally all the motivational factors will be qualitative factors therefore standard scales for measurement may not be used so develop own scale with receptive-ended, ranking, grading and other qualitative ways of questions the manager may use even billet measurement scales like likert, thurstone, semantic differential scale etc.How could you effectively recruit for the various positions or roles?In a simpler words the effective recruitment starts with development of effective recruitment plan by appropriate feasting, perfect job analysis ands developing good job description,Present your recruitment and selection plan by preparing a report not exceeding e500 words.R-RESOURCEFULE-ENERGETICC-CHARISMATICR-REALISTICU-UBIQUITOUSI-INQUISITIVET-TACTFULE-EAGERR-RIGHTEOUSBe preparedthere is an old phrase in management which says if you fail to plan then you are planning to fail. Therefore if the organized planning is done it will definitely result in reducing time and cost of recruitment at the same time tabbing high potential for which following are to be doneAnalyze market trend within your business and application is a very important element of the planning stage.Yet a day is able to create a gigantic differentiation so plan to have a hoard of resources which you can instantly take from as soon as the need arises.There are usually three type of role you will apply in your industryHigh churn role usually the least possible time to employ, but the very ften advertisement. The advantage of high churn functions is that you repeatedly get the opportunity to analyse new technique to well adjust your hiring method. This is the group of candidate that your ongoing recruitment tantalise should be target. There are numerous instance where organisations run recruitment campaign even when they have no vacancy.Medium churn roles these are the role which are seen less freq uintly for additional vital part of your organisation. This could be a mid-level manager who leaves their subordinate with no one to report to, or a skillful member of staff who has a exceptional skill set. The best way to decrease time to employ with these position is to put up a talent pool which you can contact when the time comes. combine this with a extremely targeted online recruitment campaign should bring you a good number of prospects of candidates to select from. small(a) churn roles For long term strategically important role which are much less often hired for, its not as much of important for you to cloy up the role rapidly and added significant to identify the right person. However, there are still some things you can do to help mother the progression all along.recruiters usually work on commission only and you should be able to get often day to day reports on who in the business may be ready to make a move so when the time comes you know the best people out there t o fill the departing shoes.Internal recruitment is your other option for filling a position quickly, although remember that shifting an employee into a new role will only open up a gap elsewhere.Strategy =2measure trend inexternal labour markets, Current employeesFuture organisational plans, General economic trends anticipate demand Forecast internal Forecast externalsupply supply Compare future demand and internal supplyPlan for short-falls or over-staffing step for recruitmentDescribe the work or the jobProfiling the candidatesConverse your job needsDecide precisely the methodologyImportant questions to be consideredwhether we have the requirement for the said job?What are the task involved in job?What are the skill sets to be possed by the person?What may be the sources of getting personHow to call them to our organisaton ?Formal and strategic approachMan power planning and forecastingDetailed Job analysisDevelopment of Job descriptionSpecifying the job roles and responsibilities Starting the RecruitmentConducting Selection processInduction and job offerDifferent ways of Job AnalysisDeveloping the QuestionnaireConducting soulfulness InterviewObservational methodJudgement and Expert Analysis methodWork ParticipationCritical Incident TechniqueJob Descriptions Job SpecificationsElements of a Job DescriptionJob titleDepartmentLocationReporting toMain tasksStaff responsibilitiesRewards conditionsImpact on othersQualificationsInnate abilitiesMotivationEmotional valuation reserveMost Popular MethodsAdvertisement in local news papersAdvertisement in specialist pressAdvertisement in national pressPlacement and Employment agencyPutting Notice inside premisesJob centresEducation liaisonUnsolicited applicationCareers serviceHead huntersCareers fairs meshworkWord-of-mouth

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics Essay

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics EssaySub-Saharan Africa is the largest current countenance recipient region of the demesne since 2001 having overtaken Asia as the largest at angleing-receiving region. Since to a greater extent than five decades ago, over $1 trillion has been disbursed to the region to spur ontogeny and integration into the global economy (Moyo, 2009 Dessai and Porter, 2009 and Handley et al. 2009). Despite the huge follow of concern flow to sub-Saharan Africa, widespread poverty, chronic hunger and prevalence of life-threatening diseases are unprecedented in the region. Institutions and scholars are now referring to food-malnutrition-hunger problems in the develop countries as the trinity crises (Chibba, 201176-77).There are also increasing dependency on charge, foreign technologies, institutions and value system, (Todaro and Smith, 2011 Collier, 2008 Kelsall, 2008). The World Bank (2008) on the monitoring of the progress of MDG inform that the first goal of halving absolute poverty has been disappointing in sub-Saharan Africa.The misfortune of promote has gene calculated debate among scholars and policy practiti superstarr alike. This is beca usage of the distress of fifty days of challenging embolden interventions. Poor semi semipolitical leadership and weak area institution of recipient countries, and the agenda and conditionality imposed by donor countries and governments are attrisolelyed for the failure of attention politics and frugalals of aid. However, the availability of abundant natural resources in Nigeria and different sub-Saharan African countries stir non affected their fortune alleged(prenominal) resource curse (Ushie, 20121 TI, 2012 Handley et al 2009). The aid- exploitation debate, multilateral and bilateral institutions and prominent scholars like Jeffrey Sachs and Arndt et al. in Chibba (2011) support the view that aid has a key utilization to play in achieving poverty step-d possess and proce ss. There are increasing demand for focussed aid to developing countries, especially small states, low-income countries and post-conflict states (Chibba 2011, Paulo and Reisen, 2010). Critics of Sachs work on aids role in breeding such as William Easterly (2006), Dambisa Moyo (2009) among others argued that poverty could be solved more by income redistri exclusivelyion than by growth and that aid is destructive to the economy of developing countries. However, the to the highest degree important thing is finding workable and real-world solutions to address both poverty and development challenges.The role of institutional pure tone of a country is more significant and not closely related to the volume of development assistance to the country. It is also more important than the geographical positioning and integration of the country into world trade (Booth, 2011). He said this could be an financial statement for deficiency of strong positive link amidst aid and development outc ome in sub-Saharan Africa. Kofi Annan in UNDP 2006 noted that administration issues remain crucial elements of all strategies towards poverty eradication and kind development organisation matters for development. Institutions, rules and political make fores induct major roles to play in whether children have access to quality education, whether bulk have access to basic things of life, and whether there is development or retrogression. Promoting human race development is beyond overcoming scotch, neighborly and technological challenges it includes political and institutional challenges, which causes poverty and insulation to development (UNDP, 2002 Abdellatif, 2003).The governance crisis in sub-Saharan Africa is obvious in plethoric corruption, public services that are inefficient and inability of citizens to exercise their basic rights to choose their leaders court without justice, public officials demanding bribe and hospital without doctors and drugs. Good governance is crucial in eradicating poverty and promotes development through effective institutions and rules. These can be achieved through accountability, transparency, empowerment, participation and rule of law. Failures of social policies often occur because the beneficiaries lack political power and adequate representation in the decisions that affects their lives. Developing countries will promote human development for all with governance systems that are fully responsible to the citizens. People can be better off when they can participate in the debates and decisions that affect their lives (UNDP 2002).For aid to achieve its aims, the race that aid intent essential be empowered. Aung San Suu Kyi cited by UNDP (200252) argued, Development as growth, advancement and the realisation of potential depends on available resources and no resources are more effective than people world empowered are. Governance for human developments must protect human rights promote wider participation of the people in the institutions and rules that affects their lives. It is not just about efficient, equitable economic and social outcomes, but must embrace fair abut. Succinctly, it must be democratic in substance and in form by the people and for the people (p, 52).Todaro and Smith (2011) noted that development needs improved functioning of the public, esoteric and citizens sector. Each of these actors has their weaknesses accountability. These weaknesses must be addressed to achieve balanced, shared and sustainable development. well-behaved society organisations have the capacity to reduce accountability gap in global governance. Scholars and policy-makers have come to accept the fact that active involvement of well-mannered society organisations in governance will provide solution to accountability deficit in global governance (Scholte, 2011). Civil society should be a major player to achieve that goals by mobilising communities, delivering services and shaping policies (I brahim and Hulme, 2010 Bank and Hulme 2012 and Collins 2012). To critics, well-behaved society might aggravate the problem because they themselves are indisposed accountable to their constituency eventide if they have one (Scholte 2011 Steffeks et al, 2008, Kaldor 2002).The recent studies and supra subject commitments reiterate the necessity of increasing research on poverty eradication and achieving sustainable development. prescribed monitoring of the impact of Paris Declaration where developed and developing countries make commitment to make aid effective by 2011 showed that only one of the bakers dozen targets has been met(OECD, 2011). Making aid effective and achieve its goal remains a crucial goal of development. Democratic governance is the answer good governance or good enough governance is democratic governance from human development perspective (UNDP 2002 Grindle, 2007).1.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVEThis research intends to study how to overcome constraints to poverty re duction and achieving sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa.The research intends to answer these questionsWhat are the obstacles to poverty reduction and development in sub-Saharan Africa?What are the role of NGOs and civil society in promoting democracy in global and national governance institutions?What are the roles of civil society and NGOs in shaping governance policies and as resource provider of social services?1.2 METHODOLOGYThere is an extensive literature on the role of state and non-state actors in governance of aid and capacities of different actors in governance institution towards poverty eradication and achieving human development in developing countries. This research will provide answers to the above questions by reviewing literature as a secondary data source. This method is selected considering the timescale of the study. It is possible to carry out this type of research by evaluation of secondary data source in assessing the core issues and approaches in providing solution to the research questions. This allows the critical appraisal of different literature source. Ethically, there is no research participant, hence no implication on any. This research is limited to the review of relevant literature on role of CSOs in poverty reduction, development and aid in developing countries and no domain researchThis research work is structured in five chapters. The first chapter contains introduction of the issues in aid governance, the cause for this research and research objectives methodology. Second chapter captures the rationality for aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa. Its shed light on the challenges facing sub- Saharan Africa, and why aid has not been effective in cut down extreme poverty and promote human development. The concluding part of the chapter discusses global governance challenges and previous roles of NGOs and civil society in global governance and development. The third chapter discuss the centrality of democ racy in governance and achieving sustainable human development. The focus of chapter four is the roles of NGOs and civil society in promoting democracy and addressing economic and development policy challenges. The fifth chapter is the conclusion of this researchCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1. RATIONALE BEHIND AID, AID DEBATE AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAttainment of development by any nation depends on combination of factors. These include the countrys resources endowment and population its governments policies and objectives the availability of external capital and technology international flow of financial resources and the international trade environment (Todaro and Smith, 2011). External capital comes in trinity main forms. The first of these involves private foreign direct and portfolio investment by large international corporations and purchase of bonds, stocks and notes in the developing countries credit and equity markets by private institutions and individuals. The second inv olves remittances of earnings by international migrants and the third involves public and private development assistance foreign aid. In the case of sub-Saharan Africa, there are factors that make it unattractive for private foreign direct and portfolio investment. Political instability and ageless military take-over economic factors and pathetic business environment geographical factors majority of the countries in the region are landlocked nations and in earnest of life and property and poor infrastructure makes it unattractive as a place for foreign investment (Sachs, 200563). In addition, remittances of earnings by international migrants are small. According to United area report cited by Todaro and Smith (2011), only Nigeria and Egypt have remittance of 4.7 and 5.8 percent of their gross domestic product.The above situation makes the role of aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa significant. charge aims to fill the gap limiting development by accessarying savings to boost investment for improving productive capacity and needed infrastructures that facilitate development (Burnell, 2008 TI, 2011 and Todaro and Smith, 2011702). The argument is that developing countries lacks adequate domestic savings required for investment opportunities. Coupled with this, African countries have low foreign-exchange earnings to finance imports. Lack of physical and human capital to attract private investment does not also help matter. Despite the increasing flow of aid, government policies and objectives are militating against its effectiveness.Defining foreign aid is conceptually problematic. To Dambisa Moyo (2009), aid is simply the sum total of both concessional loan and grants. Concessional loans are funds to be repaid, but with a more favourable refund conditions to the borrower than what can be obtained through standard financial markets. It is sometimes at the expense of the bestow countries. Grants are money given for nothing in return. She mentioned three types of aid. The first is humanitarian aid. That is, aid in response to catastrophe and calamities. The second is charity-based aid. These are aid disbursed by charitable organisations (NGOs and other voluntary sectors) to institutions or people on ground (p7). The third form of aid is systemic aid. This is aid payments made directly to governments which could be either through government-to- government transfer( bilateral aid) or transfer through institution such as World Bank(multilateral aid).The widely used concept of aid is the combination of all official grants and concessional loans. It may be in kind or currency. Peter Burnell(2008), viewed aid as including transfer of finance, commodities and other goods, technical cooperation and debt relief and grants is the common form of bilateral aid to least(prenominal) developed countries because of their inability in the past to service concessional loans acquired,(p.503). The intention is transfer of resources from develop ed countries to developing countries to reduce poverty and facilitate development the common target of aid now (Todaro and Smith, 2011 TI 2011). The focus of aid on the human development, poverty reduction and good governance is a recent development in aid governance. The reason for the new focus of aid is the increasing high profile of other non-state actors in governance, particularly, civil society organisations (TI, 2011, UNDP 2007). This weakened the monopoly of the state in promoting development and the role of these non-state actors are increasing as the power of the state declines and global economic activities intensifies (Dessai and Porter, 2008 499). They defined the state as the network of government, quasi-government and non-governmental institutions (traditional institutions) that coordinates, regulates and monitors economic and social activities (p. 499).The US Marshall pattern (1948-51) of post-war reconstructions in Western atomic number 63 success set spur the us e of aid vehicle in promoting development, but the failure of aid to achieve alike(p) in least developed nations is a case for concerns. The contemporary experiences generated heated debate on the relevance of aid to national development and spurred the queries of rationalities behind aid (Moyo, 2009 Burnell, 2008 and 1997 Collier, 2008 and Todaro and Smith, 2011). In the first decade of twenty-first century, the common reason given by donor nations for giving aid are moral and humanitarian interest in helping the less privileged. Some development assistance has been in the form of emergency food relief and medical checkup program currently in Afghanistan, Somalia, Haiti, Southern Sudan and Syria. As true as that may be, there are historical evidences that support the claim that no donor nation give aid without expecting something in return. Some of the reasons are political and economic gain, counterterrorism especially after September 11, antinarcotics in Mexico and Latin Ame rica, and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS.Common motivation by donor countries is political benefits. Burnell (2008) argued that even US aid for post-war reconstruction in Western Europe was motivated by political and concerns for national security and superpower competition with USSR (Todaro and Smith, 2011). The hidden rationale of the US Marshall Plan was mainly to contain the spread of communism. The success achieved in take Western Europe back on sound economic footing was clear, but it also gave US the advantage of influencing foreign policy with that part of Europe becoming its allies. It enhanced the emergence of US-led multilateralism (Moyo 200912). The focus shifted in 1950s from Europe to developing nations while the agenda of containment embodied in the US aid political program dictated a shift in emphasis toward political, economic, and military support for friendly less developed nations especially those considered geographically strategic (Todaro and Smith, 2011701).The Cold state of war marked the political contest between USSR and US. African countries were used as battleground to make the newly independent nations either communist or capitalist. The extend disaster in Syria reflects the hegemony between Russia, China and US. In the Latin America, Alliance for encourage in 1960s was formal to promote economic development of the region, but at a lower placelying that is the motivation to counter rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba and the fear of communism in other Latin America nations. The doomed fate of the Alliance for Progress showed its irrelevance to US scheme of affairs.Dated back to 1940s, Britain government gives aid for infrastructural projects to poorer nations, majorly to commonwealth member countries and British Colonial Development and Welfare Act was established to fund social services (Moyo, 2009). In sum, Western donors give aid as a political instrument to prop up friendly political regimes in developing n ations based on their own national security interest. Critics of aid argued that the fight against AIDS is to prevent it from spreading to the West and likely state collapse that might be a haven for terrorist (Moyo, 2009 Maathai, 2009).There is strong economic rationale for foreign aid from developed countries. Chief among them are japan and Germany. Japan gave aid to less developed Asian neighbours to promote its private investments and expanding trade. Chinas aid in Africa currently have same motive. The aim of Marshall Plan was for Europe to regain their social, political and economic stability and to regain their level of development. US injected about $100bilion (current value of the aid package) as rescue package under George C. Marshal, the then US Secretary of State in 1947, for post- Second World War reconstruction in Europe. The birth of Breton Wood institutions (IMF, World Bank and WTO) in 1940s with the agenda of restructuring international finance, establishing a multi lateral trading system and formation of framework for economic cooperation to avoid the experience of the Great Depression of mid-thirties reinforce aid system. They were to enhance capital investment for reconstruction and manage global financial system purposely to share investment risk between countries where all member nation bankroll the risk involved (Moyo, 2009 Todaro and Smith, 2011 and Dessai and Porter, 2008).Economic benefits also accrues to the donor countries especially from tied aid loans or grants that requires the recipient countries to use the fund to purchase goods and services from the donor countries. According to Todaro and Smith (2011705), a large fraction of US aid has been spent on American Consultants and other US businesses.The recipient countries accept aid based on their belief on the economic tenets of developed nations as a requirement for the achievement of their own development and in some cases and lack of domestic resources. To some corrupt leader s aid is attractive because they hardly account for it and sometimes used to chasten opposition and retain power military assistance. Moral obligation, some argued, compel the donor countries to assist the less developed nation on humanitarian ground. They accept that the rich countries, especially former colonial masters such as Britain, US, France, Italy, Spain Portugal to mention a few, owe the poor countries reparation for their past exploitations.Aid and aid governance has generated hot debate and political disagreement among scholars, policy-makers and the public (Collier, 200899). The first argument is on aid effectiveness in promoting development. Proponents of aid believe that it has engendered economic growth and transformed many developing countries. The Nobel Laureate, Maathai (2009), in her book The Challenge for Africa observed that Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) alone has provided over $650 billion in development assistance to sub-Saha ran Africa. She noted the flows have not reversed the increasing death of poor African because of malaria, HIV/AIDS and other insalubrious diseases. However, the impact of foreign media and development experts concern on Africa issues especially on preventable diseases has been helpful, but that is not the concerns of sub-Saharan Africa public officials.Collier (2008) noted that aid tends to speed up growth. In Africa, he pointed out that aid has added about 1 percent to the countries annual economic growth rate of the bottom billion. though not encouraging, but according to him, the growth rate in those countries has been less than 1 percent or even zero. The aid addition to the growth rate is the difference between economic stagnation and severe cumulative decline and without aid, cumulatively the countries of the bottom billion over would have become poorer than they are today aid has been a holding operation preventing things from falling apart (Collier, 2008100). The renewed commitment of the world leaders and international organisation involved in the governance of aid reinforced the position that aid is relevant to the development of sub-Saharan Africa. They agreed that properly administered aid would meet its development objectives (Paris Declaration, 2005). Critics of aid argue that aid does not promote growth and development, but contrarily may even be destructive to development of developing nations. Moyo (2009) vigorously criticised aid in Africa. She argued the mental picture that aid can alleviate systemic poverty and has done so is a myth. Millions in Africa are poorer today because of aid misery and poverty have not ended but have increased. Aid has been and continue to be, an unmitigated political, economic, and humanitarian disaster for the most part of the developing world (p.xix).In the same vein, Peter Baueras cited by Moyo (2009), noted that aid distort development as the fund ended in the hand of a selected few. He said aid is a form of taxing the poor in the developed countries to enrich the new elites in their former colonies. Baueras concluded that aid-based theories and policies are inconsistent with sound economic management and with reality of the situation in developing nations.The argument that aid had had little or no impact on the development of sub-Saharan Africa is strong. However, one can be curious to ask what befell the income from the countries earnings from natural resources and other revenues. In reality, those resources also have not been of any impact on the development of the region (Ushie, 2012 Handley et al. 2009 and Chibba 2011, TI 2012). Moyo (2009) agreed on this and admitted that the problem of Africa is beyond aid because domestic earnings also seem to be a curse. Collier argued that the growth rate in countries with natural resources (oil windfall) such as Nigeria that earned over $280 billion from crude oil were not different from those other countries without such resources and w ith even negative effect of oil windfall on their economies. He lamented that more aid without changes in approach to governance is doomed to fail but as a general instruments (aid) for developing the bottom billion they would be more reassuring had oil and other natural resources revenues been more successful in achieving development(2008102). Maathai support this claim Unfortunately, too many African governments have used their budgets, and their natural resources, not to invest in their people, but in precisely the opposite manner(Maathai, 200975). some other dimension of aid debate is aid-conditionality. Formal president of South Africa, Dr Nelson Mandela, at the United Nation Summit in 1995 said it is to perpetuate difficulties of the South for the atomic number 7 to relate to us as hapless victims to dictate to regarding loans and the employment of aid (cited by Todaro and Smith,2011684). Argument against conditionality is popular among civil society, governments and the inte rnational institutions involving in the governance of aid. Conditionality-based lending started in 1980s with recommendation for economic policy and institutional reform with Structural Adjustment Programme taken central stage. It incurred resentment because people viewed it as coercive and offensive to sovereignty (Burnell, 2008505).Based on Dollar and Burnsides (1998) recommendation, selectivity was introduced to aid favouring countries that show commitment to sound development policy and good governance. Critics view this as depriving assistance to countries that desperately need the help. Nevertheless, Collier noted that aid agencies have little incentives to enforce conditionality because people get promotion by disbursing fund, not by withholding it. He advocated for a shift in the focus of governments to the welfare of their citizens. He argued that the internal process by which citizens force government to be accountable to them is weak in developing nations and must be str engthened. To achieve this, external pressure is needed and legitimate Why should we give aid to governments that are not willing to let their citizens see how they spend it (2008110). The focus of all stakeholders in aid governance now must be how to make it effective in meeting its development goals, because aid is at the heart of governance today and it is unlikely to disappear, (Moyo, 200966).Aid effectiveness can be viewed as efforts gear toward ensuring the maximum impact of development aid for getting the most possible lives improved. Elliot Stern et al (200820) based on the principle of Paris Declaration (PD) defined aid effectiveness as arrangement for the planning, management and deployment of aid that is efficient, reduces transaction costs and targeted towards development outcomes including poverty reduction. The theme of PD is how to improve the way aid is delivered and it was to supplement PRSP. It demands from donors to harmonise their assistance with the policies an d systems of recipient countries to support country-owned development (Booth 2011). Development effectiveness of aid is conceived as the effectiveness of aid in promoting development. Human development requires more than achieving economic growth in GDP and raising income. The focus of development must shift from national income accounting to people-centred policies.Development is defined as the process of improving the quality of all human lives and capabilities by raising peoples levels of living, self-esteem, and freedom (Todaro and Smith, 20115). Sakiko Fukuda-Parr (2003) viewed development as the elimination of obstacles to what a person can do in life. Obstacles such as illiteracy, ill health, lack of access to resources or lack of civil and political freedoms. Amartya Sen (2001) noted that development should be viewed as a process of expanding the real freedom that people enjoyed. UNDP (2001) supported this by saying that the fundamental capabilities for human development are to live healthy and long lives, to be educated, to have access to resources for good standard of living and ability to participate in the life of the community.THE CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAChallenges facing sub-Saharan Africa are multi-dimensional, most importantly, the prevalence of extreme poverty and chronic diseases across the region. They form one-sixth of the world population, describe by Paul Collier (2008) as the bottom billion. Sachs (200518) described them as too ill, hungry, or destitute to step the ladder of development. The webs of poverty make it passing difficult to escape it on their own. Extreme poverty, according to him, agent that households are unable to meet their basic physiological or biological needs for survival. Education is unaffordable for the children and there is no proper shelter for the household. Sachs (2005) reported that 93 percent of the world poor population lives in three regions East Asia, South Asia and sub-Saharan Afr ica. While it has reduced substantially in Asia, the percentage of extremely poor people has risen in sub-Saharan Africa (Handley et al. 2009 Moyo 2009 and Collier 2008).National Bureau of Economic Research (NGO) as quoted by Maathai (2009) reported that the economic growth of the world grew at 2 percent between 1960 and 2001, but the reverse was the case in Africa. She noted, GDP growth was negative from 1974 to mid-1990s and by 2003, sub-Saharan Africa GDP lowered by 11 percent than thirty previous years (p.48). In early 1960s, only 10 percent of the world poor were African, but in year 2000, African population formed 50 percent of the world poor. The growth rate of sub-Saharan Africa countries did not exceed 0.5 since 1960 when the population was 277million. With a population of over 900million, the growth rate remains unchanged. Such economic performance cannot guarantee meeting the basic needs of the people.Moyo (2009) also noted that sub-Saharan Africa remain the poorest regio n in the world with per capital income of $1 a day, lower than what it was in 1970s. The number of people from that region living in gloomy poverty doubled between 1981 and 2002. UNDP(2007) cited by Moyo(2009) predicted that by 2015, one-third of third of the world poor would be African contrary to one fifth in 1990. Life expectancy stands at 50year, the lowest in the world. And still, across important indicator life expectancy, literacy rate, maternal- infant mortality and income inequality the trend in Africa is not just downwards Africa is (negatively) decoupling from the progress being made across the rest of the world(Moyo 20096). Collins (2012) described poverty as one of the greatest challenges to human security and basic human needs. In Nigerian newspaper, the Punch of 27th February 2013, former president of US, Bill Clinton said the cause of Boko Haram (Western Education is bad) insurgency in the Nigeria and other sub-Saharan countries are rooted in prevalence of extreme poverty. Sub-Saharan Africa is now a theatre of terrorism.Some of the factors adduced for these challenges in sub-Saharan Africa are assort as geographical, historical, cultural, tribal and institutional. Collier (2008) argued that geographical environment and topography of a country determines its wealth and success. Some environments are easier to manipulate than others are. This gives some society opportunity to tend plants and animal better than others do. The climatic condition, location, topography, species of plants and animals influences peoples ability to provide food for consumption and export. These have positive impact on the economic and development (Moyo 2009). Jeffrey Sachs (2005) gave example of how the humor and location of Britain helped in its economic and social development. He said, Geographical location of Britain enabled it to benefit from trade, productive agriculture and energy resources in vast stock of sear (p.35). He revealed that Britain has favourab le climatic condition for agriculture and extensive navigable river ways for internal and external trade. The reverse is the case in sub-Saharan Africa. historical factors particularly, colonialism was given as one of the reasons for poverty and underdevelopment in Africa. Sachs (2005) opined that Europe superior powers coax weaker societies to take action favourable to their advantage. They commandeered natural resources including natural wealth of Africa, and private army were raised to ensure compliance (p.41). Maathai (2009) also noted that the legacy of colonial master the territories they established was meant to serve their interest. They had no genuine interest in the development of the local population, but in raw materials to their various countries. She noted that outcasts of the traditional society that cooperated with the colonial authority were elevated to positions that they would never have held in traditional societal institutions. This cultivated a system that de -emphasised merit and competence that still endures today. It perpetuates underdevelopment because merit and competence is not a condition in pickaxe official positions against sound governance and justice.Even after independence, the new leader faile

Comparing Medieval and Rennaisance Paintings Essay -- essays research

Comparing Medieval and Rennaisance PaintingsIn the following essay I shall compare and contrastpaintings from the medieval and renaissance period.Medieval paintings were very realistic and precise.The king in the painting is in the middle, andanything painted in the middle is the shopping center ofattraction or the important object in the painting. Toprove this theory, I looked at the painting and thefirst thing that caught my eye is the king. Thehuman body is not too detailed but the actions theyare doing or intend to do are very clear. The paintercreated visual space in this painting in a very wittyway he painted pillars and ceiling ornaments, whichis an indication of height and space. I think it is avery successful method acting because the person who islooking at the painting has sp...